How to Learn Japanese Effectively [2]: Kana

★Vowels and Consonants

　　5 Basic Vowels: /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/
　　Characteristics of Vowels:
　　1. Pure Pronunciation:
　　　　Japanese vowels are pronounced clearly, without the vowel reduction seen in English (e.g., the “schwa” sound /ə/).
　　2. No Diphthongs:
　　　　Japanese does not have true diphthongs, but similar effects can be achieved by vowel sequences (e.g., 「あい」/ai/).
　　3. Long and Short Vowel Contrast:
　　　　Japanese has a contrast between long and short vowels, with long vowels indicated by extending the vowel duration (e.g., 「おお」/oː/ vs. 「お」/o/).

　　14 Basic Consonants: /k/, /s/, /t/, /n/, /h/, /m/, /y/, /r/, /w/, /g/, /z/, /d/, /b/, /p/
　　Characteristics of Consonants:
　　1. Voiced and Voiceless Contrast:
　　　　Voiceless (unvoiced) sounds: e.g., 「か」(ka), 「さ」(sa), 「た」(ta).
　　　　Voiced sounds: e.g., 「が」(ga), 「ざ」(za), 「だ」(da).
　　2. Semi-Voiced Sounds:
　　　　Semi-voiced sounds are aspirated variants of voiceless sounds, e.g., 「ぱ」(pa), 「ぴ」(pi), 「ぷ」(pu), 「ぺ」(pe), 「ぽ」(po).
　　3. Consonant Weakening:
　　　　In some cases, consonants are weakened. For example, 「は」(ha) is pronounced as /wa/ when used as a particle.
　　4. Lack of Certain Consonants:
　　　　Japanese lacks certain consonants found in English, such as /th/, /v/, /f/.

◇Hiragana

n	w-	r-	y-	m-	h-	n-	t-	s-	k-
ん (n)	わ	ら	や	ま	は	な	た	さ	か	あ	-a
	ゐ*	り		み	ひ	に	ち (chi)	し (shi)	き	い	-i
		る	ゆ	む	ふ (fu)	ぬ	つ (tsu)	す	く	う	-u
	ゑ*	れ		め	へ	ね	て	せ	け	え	-e
	を (o)	ろ	よ	も	ほ	の	と	そ	こ	お	-o

* = No longer used.

　　Hiragana is the basic phonetic unit of Japanese, capable of writing all Japanese words. However, since written Japanese does not use spaces, using only Hiragana can make text difficult to read.
　　Follow stroke order to ensure smooth writing and avoid developing bad habits.
　　「ん」 is the only kana without a vowel.
　　「し」(shi), 「ち」(chi), 「つ」(tsu) have pronunciations different from the general consonant + vowel pattern.
　　「r」 sound requires the tongue to touch the roof of the mouth.
　　「tsu」 vs. 「su」 distinction.

◇Katakana

n	w-	r-	y-	m-	h-	n-	t-	s-	k-
ン (n)	ワ	ラ	ヤ	マ	ハ	ナ	タ	サ	カ	ア	-a
	ヰ*	リ		ミ	ヒ	ニ	チ (chi)	シ (shi)	キ	イ	-i
		ル	ユ	ム	フ (fu)	ヌ	ツ (tsu)	ス	ク	ウ	-u
	ヱ*	レ		メ	ヘ	ネ	テ	セ	ケ	エ	-e
	ヲ* (o)	ロ	ヨ	モ	ホ	ノ	ト	ソ	コ	オ	-o

* No longer used or rarely used.

　　Katakana is primarily used for:
　　　　Loanwords (e.g., コンピュータ - computer)
　　　　Emphasis (similar to italics in English)
　　　　Onomatopoeia (e.g., ドキドキ - heartbeat)
　　　　Special purposes (e.g., biological names, brand names)
　　Katakana pronunciations are identical to their Hiragana counterparts, only the writing differs. Loanwords must adapt to the Japanese [consonant + vowel] structure, which may alter their original pronunciation. For example, the English word “coffee” is written as 「コーヒー」(kōhī) in Japanese.
　　When learning Katakana, it is essential to memorize the Japanese pronunciation rather than the original English pronunciation to avoid misunderstandings.

◇Katakana Spelling Rules

　　When converting English words into Katakana, the following rules apply:
　　No distinction between L/R: Japanese does not distinguish between L and R, both are represented by the 「ラ」 row.
　　　　Ready → レディ
　　　　Lady → レディ
　　Long vowels: Consecutive vowels or words ending with /r/ are often converted into long vowels (ー).
　　　　Target → ターゲット
　　　　Shoot → シュート
　　Sokuon (small ッ): Used to represent a glottal stop or a doubled consonant.
　　　　Catch → キャッチ
　　　　Cache → キャッシュ
　　Adding vowels to consonant endings: Japanese words end with vowels (except for “n” and “m” due to 「ン」), so for “t” and “d”, “o” is usually added; for others, “u” is typically added:
　　　　Good → グッド
　　　　Top → トップ
　　　　Jack → ジャック

◇Voiced and Semi-Voiced Sounds (Consonant Variants)

p-	b-	d-	z-	g-
ぱ	ば	だ	ざ	が	-a
ぴ	び	ぢ (ji)	じ (ji)	ぎ	-i
ぷ	ぶ	づ (dzu)	ず	ぐ	-u
ぺ	べ	で	ぜ	げ	-e
ぽ	ぼ	ど	ぞ	ご	-o

　　Voiced Sounds: Formed by adding a dakuten (゛) to the kana, e.g.,
　　　　か → が (ka → ga)
　　　　さ → ざ (sa → za)
　　Semi-Voiced Sounds: Formed by adding a handakuten (゜) to the kana, used only with the 「は」 row:
　　　　は → ぱ (ha → pa)
　　　　ひ → ぴ (hi → pi)

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★Special Phonemes

　　Japanese has some special phonemes that do not belong to vowels or consonants but play an important role in pronunciation.

◇Moraic Nasal: /N/

　　The moraic nasal is usually written as 「ん」 and sounds like a nasal, but its exact pronunciation varies depending on the following phoneme. For example:
　　　　In 「さん」(san), /N/ is pronounced as /n/.
　　　　In 「しんぶん」(shinbun), /N/ is pronounced as /m/.
　　　　In 「りんご」(ringo), /N/ is pronounced as /ŋ/ (similar to the English “ng” sound).

◇Gemination: /Q/

　　Gemination is written as 「っ」 and represents the lengthening or doubling of a consonant. For example:
　　　　「かった」(katta) uses 「っ」 to lengthen the /t/ sound.
　　　　「きっぷ」(kippu) uses 「っ」 to lengthen the /p/ sound.

◇Long Vowels

　　Long vowels are represented by extending the vowel sound, usually written as 「ー」 or by repeating the vowel. For example:
　　　　「おおきい」(ookii) uses 「おお」 to extend the /o/ sound.
　　　　「コーヒー」(koohii) uses 「ー」 to extend the vowel sound.

Vowel	Kana Used for Lengthening
/a/	あ
/i/, /e/	い
/u/, /o/	う

　　Lengthen the pronunciation by adding the corresponding vowel after the kana.
　　The principle of long vowels is simple; try pronouncing 「か」 and 「あ」 separately, then quickly combine them. Soon, you’ll notice that it feels like extending the /ka/ sound. When pronouncing long vowels, remember that you are essentially pronouncing two sounds.
　　「ここ」(koko, here) vs. 「こうこう」(koukou, high school)
　　「おばさん」(obasan, aunt) vs. 「おばあさん」(obaasan, grandmother)
　　In rare cases, the /e/ vowel is lengthened with 「え」, and the /o/ vowel is lengthened with 「お」. Examples include 「おねえさん」、「おおい」, and 「おおきい」. Be aware of these exceptions, though they are few.

　　In Katakana, long vowels are represented by 「ー」 without additional kana.
　　Examples:
　　　　ツアー (tsu-a) → tour
　　　　メール (me-ru) → email
　　　　ケーキ (ke-ki) → cake

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★Yōon (Palatalized Sounds)

　　Yōon are sounds formed by combining a consonant with /y/, usually written with small 「ゃ」「ゅ」「ょ」.
　　These sounds are very common in Japanese, especially in loanwords and compound words.

p-	b-	j-	g-	r-	m-	h-	n-	c-	s-	k-
ぴゃ	びゃ	じゃ (ja)	ぎゃ	りゃ	みゃ	ひゃ	にゃ	ちゃ (cha)	しゃ (sha)	きゃ	-ya
ぴゅ	びゅ	じゅ (ju)	ぎゅ	りゅ	みゅ	ひゅ	にゅ	ちゅ (chu)	しゅ (shu)	きゅ	-yu
ぴょ	びょ	じょ (jo)	ぎょ	りょ	みょ	ひょ	にょ	ちょ (cho)	しょ (sho)	きょ	-yo

　　Combine small kana 「ゃ」「ゅ」「ょ」 with /i/ column kana to form new sounds, e.g.,
　　　　き + ゃ = きゃ (kya)
　　　　し + ゅ = しゅ (shu)
　　　　ち + よ = ちょ (cho)

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★Extended Syllables for Loanwords

　　Extended syllables are additional phonemes introduced to accommodate loanwords, not part of traditional Japanese phonology. They include:
　　　　Small kana: e.g., 「ァ、ィ、ゥ、ェ、ォ」
　　　　Additional consonants: e.g.,
　　　　/v/ → ヴァ、ヴィ、ヴ、ヴェ、ヴォ、
　　　　/f/ → ファ、フィ、フ、フェ、フォ、
　　　　/ti/ → ティ、
　　　　/di/ → ディ, etc.
　　These syllables are primarily used in loanwords, not native Japanese words.

v-	w-	f-	ch-	d-	t-	j-	sh-
ヴァ	ワ	ファ	チャ	ダ	タ	ジャ	シャ (-a)
ヴィ	ウィ	フィ	チ	ディ	ティ	ジ	シ (-i)
ヴ	ウ	フ	チュ	ドゥ	トゥ	ジュ	シュ (-u)
ヴェ	ウェ	フェ	チェ	デ	テ	ジェ	シェ (-e)
ヴォ	ウォ	フォ	チョ	ド	ト	ジョ	ショ (-o)

　　Note:
　　/wu/ sound does not exist:
　　　　Japanese does not have a /wu/ sound, so loanwords like “woman” are written as 「ウーマン」(u-man).
　　/tu/ sound spelling:
　　　　Although modern Japanese uses 「トゥ」 for /tu/ (e.g., 「トゥデイ」“today”), older loanwords still use 「ツ」 (e.g., 「ツール」“tool”).
　　Early loanword spelling rules:
　　　　For example, “building” was originally written as 「ビルヂング」(birudingu), but modern usage writes it as 「ビルディング」(birudingu), reflecting the standardization of loanword spelling in Japanese.

　　Examples:
　　　　/v/ sound: 「ヴァイオリン」(violin)
　　　　/f/ sound: 「ファミリー」(family)
　　　　/ti/ and /di/ sounds: 「ティー」(tea), 「ディズニー」(Disney)

Loanword Syllable	Japanese Spelling	Example
/va/	ヴァ	ヴァイオリン（violin）
/wa/	ワ	ワイン（wine）
/fa/	ファ	ファミリー（family）
/cha/	チャ	チャンス（chance）
/da/	ダ	ダンス（dance）
/ta/	タ	タクシー（taxi）
/ja/	ジャ	ジャズ（jazz）
/sha/	シャ	シャツ（shirt）

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★Phonological Rules

　　Japanese phonological rules refer to the regular changes in pronunciation and phoneme combinations in Japanese. These rules affect not only the pronunciation of individual words but also the connection and transformation between words.

Japanese phonological rules include:

• Rendaku: Voicing of the initial consonant of the second word in a compound.
• Euphonic Changes: Changes in pronunciation for ease of articulation.
• Pitch Accent Rules: Each word has a specific pitch pattern.
• Vowel Devoicing: High vowels /i/ and /u/ become voiceless under certain conditions.
• Gemination: Consonant lengthening or doubling.
• Loanword Phonological Rules: Loanwords are adjusted according to Japanese phonology.

◇1. Rendaku

　　Rendaku is a common phonological phenomenon in Japanese where the initial consonant of the second word in a compound becomes voiced.
　　Rules:
　　　　When two words combine to form a compound, the initial consonant of the second word may become voiced.
　　　　Voiced consonants include: /k/ → /g/, /s/ → /z/, /t/ → /d/, /h/ → /b/.
　　Examples:
　　　　「て」(te) + 「かみ」(kami) → 「てがみ」(tegami, letter)
　　　　「はな」(hana) + 「ち」(chi) → 「はなぢ」(hanaji, nosebleed)
　　　　「おお」(oo) + 「とり」(tori) → 「おおどり」(oodori, large bird)
　　Exceptions:
　　　　Not all compounds undergo rendaku. For example:
　　　　「き」(ki) + 「かみ」(kami) → 「きかみ」(kikami, tree god) (no voicing)

◇2. Euphonic Changes

Euphonic changes refer to changes in pronunciation for ease of articulation. These changes are mainly divided into the following types:

（1）I-onbin

　　In the conjunctive form of verbs, /ki/ or /gi/ changes to /i/.
　　Examples:
　　　　「かく」(kaku, write) → 「かいて」(kaite, writing)
　　　　「いそぐ」(isogu, hurry) → 「いそいで」(isoide, hurrying)

（2）N-onbin

　　In the conjunctive form of verbs, /mu/, /bu/, /nu/ change to the moraic nasal 「ん」.
　　Examples:
　　　　「よむ」(yomu, read) → 「よんで」(yonde, reading)
　　　　「あそぶ」(asobu, play) → 「あそんで」(asonde, playing)

（3）Sokuonbin

　　In the conjunctive form of verbs, /tu/ or /ru/ changes to the geminate consonant 「っ」.
　　Examples:
　　　　「もつ」(motsu, hold) → 「もって」(motte, holding)
　　　　「とる」(toru, take) → 「とって」(totte, taking)

◇3. Pitch Accent Rules

　　Japanese is a pitch accent language, meaning each word has a specific pitch pattern. The pitch accent rules are as follows:

（1）Pitch Types

　　Heiban (Flat): The first syllable is low, and subsequent syllables are high.
　　　　Example: 「はし」(hashi, bridge) → low-high
　　Atamadaka (Head-high): The first syllable is high, and subsequent syllables are low.
　　　　Example: 「はし」(hashi, chopsticks) → high-low
　　Nakadaka (Middle-high): The first syllable is low, the middle syllable is high, and the last syllable is low.
　　　　Example: 「さかな」(sakana, fish) → low-high-low

（2）Pitch Changes

　　Pitch changes with the addition of particles or word endings. For example:
　　　　「はし」(hashi, bridge) + 「が」(ga) → 「はしが」(hashiga, bridgeが) → low-high-low
　　　　「はし」(hashi, chopsticks) + 「が」(ga) → 「はしが」(hashiga, chopsticksが) → high-low-low

◇4. Vowel Devoicing

　　In certain situations, Japanese vowels become voiceless (almost silent), especially when high vowels /i/ and /u/ are followed by voiceless consonants.
　　Rules:
　　　　High vowels /i/ and /u/ may become voiceless when between voiceless consonants (e.g., /k/, /s/, /t/, /h/) or at the end of a word.
　　Examples:
　　　　「です」(desu) → /des/ (「u」 becomes voiceless)
　　　　「きく」(kiku, listen) → /kik/ (「u」 becomes voiceless)

◇5. Gemination

　　Gemination refers to the lengthening or doubling of consonants, represented by the geminate consonant 「っ」.
　　Rules:
　　　　In compounds or verb conjugations, consonants may undergo gemination.
　　Examples:
　　　　「いっぽん」(ippon, one long object) → /Q/ represents the lengthening of /p/
　　　　「きって」(kitte, stamp) → /Q/ represents the lengthening of /t/

◇6. Loanword Phonological Rules

　　When Japanese absorbs loanwords, they are adjusted according to Japanese phonological rules:

（1）Vowel Insertion

　　Japanese does not allow consonant clusters, so vowels are inserted between consonants.
　　Examples:
　　　　“strike” → 「ストライク」(sutoraiku)
　　　　“McDonald” → 「マクドナルド」(makudonarudo)

（2）Consonant Substitution

　　Japanese lacks certain consonants (e.g., /v/, /f/), so similar sounds are used instead.
　　Examples:
　　　　“video” → 「ビデオ」(bideo)
　　　　“coffee” → 「コーヒー」(koohii)

◇7. Historical Phonological Rules

　　Japanese phonology has undergone several changes throughout history, such as:
　　　　Old Japanese: Had more vowels and consonants, such as 「ゐ」(wi) and 「ゑ」(we).
　　　　Middle Japanese: Vowels and consonants gradually simplified, forming the basis of modern Japanese.
　　　　Modern Japanese: Further simplification, incorporating loanword phonemes (e.g., 「ティ」(ti), 「ファ」(fa)).

★Kanji

◇Rules for Reading Kanji

• On’yomi (音読み) and Kun’yomi (訓読み)

  • Essentially, each kanji has two reading methods:

  • On’yomi (音読み): Derived from Chinese readings, mainly used in compound words (熟語).

  • Kun’yomi (訓読み): Native Japanese readings, typically used when the kanji appears alone.

  • Examples:

    Kanji	Kun’yomi	On’yomi	Example Word
    力	ちから	りょく	能力（のうりょく）

    Some kanji may have multiple on’yomi or kun’yomi readings, e.g., 「怪力」（かいりき） reads 「りき」 instead of 「りょく」.

◇Okurigana (送り仮名)

• In verbs and adjectives, kanji are often followed by hiragana, known as okurigana. For example:

  • Verbs: 「食べる」（たべる, eat）→「食べた」（たべた, ate）
  • Adjectives: 「新しい」（あたらしい, new）

• Functions of Okurigana:

  1. Distinguish different word types (intransitive vs. transitive verbs).
  2. Indicate word inflections (tense, voice, etc.).

◇Sound Changes (Onbin)

• Kanji in compound words may undergo sound changes for smoother pronunciation. For example:

  • /h/ → /b/ or /p/:
    • 一本（いっぽん）
    • 徹底（てってい）
  • 「つ」 becomes 「っ」:
    • 格好（かっこう）

◇Distinctions Between Similar Kanji

• Some kanji with similar meanings express subtle differences in different contexts. For example:

  • Different Expressions for “Listen”

    • 聞く（きく）：General “listen” or “ask”.
    • 聴く（きく）：Specifically “listen attentively”, e.g., listening to a concert.
    • 訊く（きく）：Only “inquire”.

  • Different Expressions for “See”

    • 見る（みる）：General “see”.
    • 観る（みる）：Watch a performance, movie.

  • Differences Between “Write” and “Draw”

    • 書く（かく）：Write.
    • 描く（かく）：Draw.
    • 描く（えがく）：Depict (abstract scenes).

◇々——Repetition Symbol

• Japanese has a special symbol 「々」, used to repeat the preceding kanji, for example:

  • 時時 → 時々（ときどき）
  • 様様 → 様々（さまざま）
  • 色色 → 色々（いろいろ）
  • 一一 → 一々（いちいち）

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