Grammar & Syntax

★ Notes

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The notes are divided into key sections to reflect the course’s progressive structure:

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★ Part 1: Core Sentence Structure and Basic Particles

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This section lays the foundation for the course, explaining the basic structure of Japanese sentences, the core particles が, は, も, and の, and how to express location, time, and tools.

◇ Core Sentence Structure

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1. Core Concept: The Sentence Train

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• All Japanese sentences consist of A (Subject/Main Carriage) and B (Predicate/Engine).
• A が B is the most basic sentence form. が is the “pin” linking the subject to the predicate.

2. Three Basic Sentence Types

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• A does B (Verb Sentence): A が [verb ending in u]

  • Example:
    さくら が あるく (Sakura ga aruku) – Sakura walks.

    flowchart LR
        b>aruku]
        a{{Sakura}}
  
        subgraph "う *U-Train (verb)*"
        direction LR
        subgraph A[" A (MAIN CAR) "]
        direction LR
        a
        end
        subgraph B[" B (ENGINE) "]
        direction LR
        b
        end
        end
  
        a e0@-->|が| B
  
        classDef mainNode fill:#1B9AAA,color:#F6F5EB,stroke:#1B9AAA,letter-spacing:2px
        class A,B mainNode
  
        classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
        class e0 animate
    

• A is B (Noun Sentence): A が [noun] だ

  • だ (da) is the copula, like “is”.
  • Example:
    さくら が 日本人(にほんじん) だ – Sakura is Japanese.

    flowchart LR
        b>Nihonjin だ]
        a{{Sakura が}}
  
        subgraph "だ *DA-Train (noun)*"
          direction LR
          a --> b
        end
  
    

• A is B (Adjective Sentence): A が [i-adjective]

  • i-adjectives contain the meaning of “is” inherently—だ is not needed.
  • Example:
    ペン が あかい – The pen is red.

    flowchart LR
        b>akai い]
        a{{Pen が}}
  
        subgraph "い *I-Train 'adjective'*"
        direction LR
        a --> b
        end
    

3. Core Concept: Invisible Subject (Zero Pronoun)

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In Japanese, all minor pronouns—such as “it,” “she,” “he,” “I,” and “they”—can be replaced by an invisible medium, the zero pronoun. However, it’s crucial to remember that they still exist implicitly.

• When context is clear, the subject A が is often omitted but still exists logically. Very common in spoken and written Japanese.

• Example:
  ドりーだ – I’m Dolly.

    flowchart LR
        b>Dolly だ]
        a{{⌀ が}}
  
        subgraph "⌀ = I (watashi)"
        direction LR
        a --> b
        end
  
        classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
        class a grayText
    

• Example:
  うさぎだ – It is a rabbit!

    flowchart LR
        b>usagi だ]
        a{{⌀ が}}
  
        subgraph "⌀ = *it*: the thing moving in the trees"
        direction LR
        a --> b
        end
  
        classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
        class a grayText
  
    

• Example:
  どようびだ – It is Saturday!

    flowchart LR
        b>doyoubi だ]
        a{{⌀ が}}
  
        subgraph "⌀ = *it*: today"
        direction LR
        a --> b
        end
  
        classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
        class a grayText
    

4. Particle を (o)

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This carriage is painted white because it isn’t part of the core train. The core train is always made up of just two pieces: the Engine and the Main Carriage. So whenever we spot a white carriage, we know it’s there to tell us something extra about either the engine or the main carriage.

• Object: The noun we are doing something to.

• Grammar role: Marks the direct object of a verb.

• Example:
  (私 が) ケーキ を 食べる – I eat cake.

    flowchart LR
        b>taberu]
        a{{watashi が}}
        o{{keeki を}}
        a e0@<-->|Core Sentence| b
        subgraph "Object"
        direction LR
        a --> o --> b
        end
  
        classDef whiteText fill:none
        class o whiteText
        classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
        class e0 animate
    

  ⇩

    flowchart LR
        b>taberu]
        a{{⌀ が}}
        o{{keeki を}}
        subgraph "Object"
        direction LR
        a --> o --> b
        end
  
        classDef whiteText fill:none
        class o whiteText
        classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
        class a grayText
    

  ⇩

    flowchart LR
        a{{私が}}
        b>taberu]
        o{{keeki を}}
        subgraph "Object"
        direction LR
        o --> b
        end
        a --> o
        classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
        class a grayText
        classDef whiteText fill:none
        class o whiteText
    

  ⇩

      flowchart LR
      a{{私が}}
      subgraph "I eat cake"
        b("ケーキを食べる")
      end
  
      a --> b
      classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
      class a grayText
    

◇ Super Basic Japanese Vocabulary List

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This list contains the most basic vocabulary for beginner learners, useful for building “A is B” and “A does B” sentences. Includes hiragana, romaji, and Chinese/English meanings.

Study Tips

• Prioritize hiragana: Beginners should focus on mastering hiragana first.
• Gradual progression: After basics, move on to kanji and katakana.
• Practice sentences: Use these words to form simple sentences.
• Pronunciation: Use romaji to help practice correct pronunciation.

◇ Core Particles は (wa) and も (mo)

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1. Particle は (wa)

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• Topic Marker
• は marks the “thing we’re talking about”—it pulls an element out of the sentence as the topic or context.
• は overrides が and を, but not other particles.
• X は Y が Z is a very common structure, meaning “As for X, Y is Z.”
• Example: 象(ぞう) は 鼻(はな) が 長(なが)い (zou wa hana ga nagai) – As for elephants, (their) noses are long.

2. Particle も (mo)

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• “Also / Too” Marker
• も indicates sameness or similarity to the previous statement.
• Like は, it overrides が and を.
• Example: 私 が 行く。あなた も 行く。 – I will go. You will go too.
• Example: ケーキ を 食べる。クッキー も 食べる。 – I eat cake. I also eat cookies.

◇ Particle の (no) — Possession & Nominalization

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1. Particle の (no)

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• Possession and Descriptive Marker
• Most commonly used to indicate possession: X の Y = Y of X.
• Example: 私 の 猫 – My cat.

2. Nominalization with の

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• Turns a verb or adjective phrase into a noun-like “thing.”
• Example: 赤い の が 好き – I like the red one.

3. Replacing が with の in embedded clauses

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• Makes the tone softer or more explanatory.
• 私 が 行く → 私 の 行く... – the place “I go to”…

◇ Location, Direction, and Tool Particles

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1. Particle に (ni)

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• Static Location: With いる / ある to express existence.
  • 猫 が 箱 に いる – The cat is in the box.
• Destination / Goal: Where the action goes.
  • 東京 に 行く – Go to Tokyo.
• Specific Time: When something happens.
  • 三時 に 会う – Meet at 3 o’clock.

2. Particle へ (e)

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• Directional Marker
• Similar to に, but emphasizes direction more than arrival.
• 東京 へ 行く – Heading toward Tokyo.

3. Particle で (de)

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• Action Location: Where an action takes place.
  • レストラン で 食べる – Eat at a restaurant.
• Means / Tool / Material
  • バス で 行く – Go by bus.
  • 木 で 作る – Made with wood.

4. Particles から (kara) & まで (made)

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• から: from (starting point)
• まで: to/until (end point)
• 家 から 学校 まで – From home to school

★ Part 2: Verbs, Adjectives, and Tenses (Lessons 21–45)

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This section dives into the classification and conjugation of verbs and adjectives, and how to express tenses and negation.

◇ Verb Groups and the て-Form

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1. Verb Groups

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• Ru-verbs (Group 2): End in る, preceded by an i or e sound. e.g., 食べる, 見る.
• U-verbs (Group 1): All other verbs. e.g., 歩く, 話す, 待つ.
• Irregular Verbs: する, 来る.

2. て-form (te-form)

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• Essential for combining actions, requests, permissions, and more.
• Ru-verbs: drop る + て: 食べる → 食べて
• U-verbs: various sound shifts
  • く/ぐ → いて/いで: 歩く → 歩いて
  • う/つ/る → って: 待つ → 待って
  • ぬ/ぶ/む → んで: 飲む → 飲んで
  • す → して: 話す → 話して
• Irregular: する → して, 来る → 来て

3. Uses of て-form

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• Link actions: 起きて、ご飯を食べて、学校へ行く
• Requests: 待ってください – Please wait.
• Ongoing actions: 食べている – Is eating.
• Manner / Means: 歩いて行く – Go on foot.

◇ Adjective Types and Conjugation

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1. I-adjectives

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• Negative: 赤い → 赤くない
• Past: 赤い → 赤かった
• Past Negative: 赤い → 赤くなかった
• Te-form: 安くて、おいしい

2. Na-adjectives

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• As noun modifier: [na-adj] な [noun]: きれいな 花
• As predicate: [na-adj] だ: 花 が きれい だ
• Negative: きれいじゃない
• Past: きれいだった
• Te-form: きれいで、静かだ

◇ Verb Tense and Negation

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1. Masu-form (Polite)

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• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べます
• U-verbs: 歩く → 歩きます

2. Plain vs Polite Forms

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• The course focuses on plain form first, as it’s essential for grammar foundations.

3. Nai-form (Negative)

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• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べない
• U-verbs: 歩く → 歩かない
• Irregular: する → しない, 来る → 来ない

4. Ta-form (Past)

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• Same pattern as te-form, but with た/だ instead of て/で
• 食べて → 食べた, 歩いた → 歩いた

★ Part 3: Complex Sentences and Advanced Particle Usage (Lessons 46–70)

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◇ Compound and Embedded Sentences

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1. Compound Sentences with て-form

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• Links sequential actions: 起きて、顔を洗って、朝ごはんを食べた。
• Can express cause or manner depending on intonation/context.

2. Quoting with と

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• と 言う: “say that…”
  • 先生 が 来る と 言った – (Someone) said that the teacher is coming.
• と 思う: “think that…”
  • 明日 は 雨 だ と 思う – I think it will rain tomorrow.
• と 聞いた: “heard that…”
  • 彼 が 来ない と 聞いた – I heard he won’t come.

3. Using こと and の for Nominalization

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• ～こと: Turns a verb phrase into a noun (more abstract/formal).
  • 泳ぐ こと が 好き – I like swimming.
• ～の: More casual or descriptive nominalization.
  • 彼 が 来る の は 明日 – It’s tomorrow that he’s coming.

◇ Giving and Receiving Verbs

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1. あげる / くれる / もらう

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• あげる: to give (speaker gives to others or others give to others)
• くれる: to give (someone gives to speaker or in-group)
• もらう: to receive

  Action	Verb	Example
  I give to you	あげる	私は あなた に 本 を あげる
  You give to me	くれる	あなた は 私 に 本 を くれる
  I receive	もらう	私は あなた に 本 を もらう

2. ～て あげる / て くれる / てもらう

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• Giving/receiving actions, not objects.
  • 手伝って あげる – I help (you).
  • 説明して くれる – (They) explain (to me).
  • 説明して もらった – I was explained to.

◇ Desire, Intention, and Suggestions

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1. たい-form (want to do)

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• 食べたい, 行きたい – want to eat/go
• Uses を instead of が
  • ケーキ が 食べたい → ケーキ を 食べたい

2. ～たがる (3rd person wants)

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• 彼 は 行きたがっている – He seems to want to go.

3. Volitional Form (let’s / I shall)

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• U-verbs: 行く → 行こう
• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べよう
• Irregular: する → しよう, 来る → 来よう
• Example: 映画 を 見よう – Let’s watch a movie.

4. ～つもり (intend to do)

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• 勉強する つもり です – I intend to study.

◇ Comparisons and Superlatives

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1. より / ほど

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• X は Y より 高い – X is taller than Y.
• X は Y ほど 高くない – X is not as tall as Y.

2. のほうが / より

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• Emphasizes preference or direction.
  • 犬 の ほうが 好き – I prefer dogs.

3. 一番 (いちばん)

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• Superlative: 一番 高い 山 – the tallest mountain.

◇ Conditional Forms and Hypotheticals

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1. ～たら (if / when)

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• Verb past + ら: 行ったら, 雨 だったら
• Used for real conditions and outcomes.

2. ～ば form

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• Conditional using base verb + ば
  • 食べれば, 行けば, 高ければ
• More formal/logical sounding than たら.

2. なら

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• Assumptive conditional (based on topic or supposition)
  • 行く なら 早く して – If you’re going, hurry.

3. と

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• Natural consequence (like a rule or law)
  • 春 に なる と 暖かく なる – When it becomes spring, it becomes warm.

★ Part 4: Advanced Grammar and Expressions (Lessons 71–93)

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◇ Passive and Causative Forms

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1. Passive Form (someone is acted upon)

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• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べられる
• U-verbs: 書く → 書かれる
• 私は 先生 に 褒められた – I was praised by the teacher.

2. Causative Form (make/let someone do)

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• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べさせる
• U-verbs: 行く → 行かせる
• 母 は 子供 を 勉強させた – The mother made the child study.

3. Causative-Passive (be made to do)

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• 食べさせられる, 行かされる – I was made to eat/go

◇ Honorific and Humble Expressions

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1. Honorific Verbs (respectful)

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• いらっしゃる, なさる, 召し上がる, ご覧になる

2. Humble Verbs (lower self)

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• 参る, いたす, いただく, 申す

3. Use with keigo forms

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• 先生 は お帰り に なりました
• 私 が いたします

◇ Formal Written Language Patterns

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1. ～のだ / ～んだ

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• Adds explanatory nuance:
  • どうして 行かない の？ – Why aren’t you going?

2. ～ようだ / ～みたいだ

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• Resemblance or appearance:
  • 雨 の ようだ – Seems like rain.

3. ～そうだ

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• Looks like:
  • 美味しそう
• Hearsay:
  • 雨 が 降る そうだ – I heard it will rain

◇ Idiomatic Phrases and Natural Expressions

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1. ～てしまう

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• Completion or regret:
  • 食べてしまった – I (accidentally) ate it all.

2. ～ながら

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• While doing:
  • 音楽 を 聞きながら 勉強する

3. ～ことがある / ～ことがある

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• There are times when:
  • 遅れる こと が ある

4. ～ようにする / ～ようになる

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• Try to do / become able to do:
  • 忘れない ようにする – Try not to forget

5. ～ばかり

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• Only / just:
  • 食べて ばかり いる