Grammar & Syntax

Source: Organic Japanese with Cure Dolly

Playlist here: Organic Japanese with Cure Dolly’s Japanese from scratch: the game-changing course in organic Japanese - YouTube

graph TD
    A[Language Skills] --> B[Verbal]
    A --> C[Written]

    B --> D[Speaking]
    B --> E[Listening]

    C --> F[Writing]
    C --> G[Reading]

    D --> H[Output]
    F --> H
    E --> I[Input]
    G --> I

★ Core Secrets

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◇ The Sentence Train

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All Japanese sentences consist of A (Subject/Main Carriage) and B (Predicate/Engine). A が B is the most basic sentence form. が is the “pin” linking the subject to the predicate.

flowchart LR
    b>aruku]
    a{{Sakura}}

    subgraph "う *U-Train (verb)*"
    direction LR
    subgraph A[" A (MAIN CAR) "]
    direction LR
    a
    end
    subgraph B[" B (ENGINE) "]
    direction LR
    b
    end
    end

    a e0@-->|が| B

    classDef mainNode fill:#1B9AAA,color:#F6F5EB,stroke:#1B9AAA,letter-spacing:2px
    class A,B mainNode

    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

◇ Three Basic Sentence Types

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A does B (Verb Sentence): A が [verb ending in u]
Example: さくら が あるく (Sakura ga aruku) – Sakura walks.

A is B (Noun Sentence): A が [noun] だ
だ (da) is the copula, like “is”.
Example: さくら が 日本人(にほんじん) だ – Sakura is Japanese.

A is B (Adjective Sentence): A が [i-adjective]
i-adjectives contain the meaning of “is” inherently—だ is not needed.
Example: ペン が あかい – The pen is red.

flowchart LR
    b>aruku]
    a{{Sakura が}}

    subgraph "う *U-Train (verb)*"
      direction LR
      a --> b
    end

flowchart LR
    b>Nihonjin だ]
    a{{Sakura が}}

    subgraph "だ *DA-Train (noun)*"
      direction LR
      a --> b
    end

flowchart LR
    b>akai い]
    a{{Pen が}}

    subgraph "い *I-Train 'adjective'*"
    direction LR
    a --> b
    end

◇ The Zero Pronoun (Invisible Subject)

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In Japanese, all minor pronouns—such as “it,” “she,” “he,” “I,” and “they”—can be replaced by an invisible medium, the zero pronoun. However, it’s crucial to remember that they still exist implicitly.

When context is clear, the subject A が is often omitted but still exists logically. Very common in spoken and written Japanese.
Example: ドりーだ – I’m Dolly.

flowchart LR
    b>Dolly だ]
    a{{⌀ が}}

    subgraph "⌀ = I (watashi)"
    direction LR
    a --> b
    end

    classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
    class a grayText

Example: うさぎだ – It is a rabbit!

flowchart LR
    b>usagi だ]
    a{{⌀ が}}

    subgraph "⌀ = *it*: the thing moving in the trees"
    direction LR
    a --> b
    end

    classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
    class a grayText

Example: どようびだ – It is Saturday!

flowchart LR
    b>doyoubi だ]
    a{{⌀ が}}

    subgraph "⌀ = *it*: today"
    direction LR
    a --> b
    end

    classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
    class a grayText

◇ Particle を (o)

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This carriage is painted white because it isn’t part of the core train. The core train is always made up of just two pieces: the Engine and the Main Carriage. So whenever we spot a white carriage, we know it’s there to tell us something extra about either the engine or the main carriage.

Object: The noun we are doing something to.
Grammar role: Marks the direct object of a verb.
Example: (私 が) ケーキ を 食べる – I eat cake.

flowchart LR
    b>taberu]
    a{{watashi が}}
    o{{keeki を}}
    a e0@<-->|Core Sentence| b
    subgraph "Object"
    direction LR
    a --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o whiteText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

flowchart LR
    b>taberu]
    a{{⌀ が}}
    o{{keeki を}}
    subgraph "Object"
    direction LR
    a --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o whiteText
    classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
    class a grayText

flowchart LR
    a{{私が}}
    b>taberu]
    o{{keeki を}}
    subgraph "Object"
    direction LR
    o --> b
    end
    a --> o
    classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
    class a grayText
    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o whiteText

  flowchart LR
  a{{私が}}
  subgraph "I eat cake"
    b("ケーキを食べる")
  end

  a --> b
  classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
  class a grayText

◇ Super Basic Japanese Vocabulary List

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This list contains the most basic vocabulary for beginner learners, useful for building “A is B” and “A does B” sentences. Includes hiragana, romaji, and Chinese/English meanings.

★ WA-particle

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◇ Particle に (ni)

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に is like a white car that forms a trio with が and を.
In “A does B” sentences, が tells us who does the doing, を tells us what it is done to, and に tells us the ultimate target of that doing.

flowchart LR
    b{{に}}
    a{{が}}
    o{{を}}
    subgraph "Logical trio(A does B)"
    direction LR
    a~~~o~~~b
    subgraph "doer(subject)"
    direction LR
    a
    end
    subgraph "done-to(object)"
    direction LR
    o
    end
    subgraph "target(indirect object)"
    direction LR
    b
    end
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o,b whiteText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

Each carriage is noun+particle.
All sentences have が!

flowchart LR
    b>なげる
    nageru
    throw]
    a{{わたしが
    watashi-ga
    I}}
    o{{ぼーるを
    booru-wo
    ball}}
    a e0@<-->|Core| b
    subgraph "White car → engine info"
    direction LR
    a --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o whiteText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

Now, if we say, “watashi ga booru-wo sakura-ni nageru”, this means “I throw a ball at Sakura” (or “to Sakura”). Sakura is the destination, the target, of my throwing.

flowchart LR
    b>なげる
    nageru
    throw]
    a{{わたしが
    watashi-ga
    I}}
    o{{ぼーるを
    booru-wo
    ball}}
    n{{さくらに
    sakura-ni
    to/at Sakura}}
    a e0@<-->|Core| b
    subgraph "White car → engine info"
    direction LR
    a --> o --> n --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o,n whiteText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

The order of the words doesn’t really matter the way it does in English. What matters is the logical particle. So if I say, “watashi-ni sakura-ga booru-wo nageru”, I’m saying, “Sakura throws the ball at me”.

flowchart LR
    b>なげる
    nageru
    throw]
    a{{さくらが
    sakura-ga
    Sakura /doer/}}
    o{{ぼーるを
    booru-wo
    ball}}
    n{{わたしに
    watashi-ni
    to/at me}}
    a e0@<-->|Core| b
    subgraph "White car → engine info"
    direction LR
    n --> a --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o,n whiteText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

If I say, “booru-ga watashi-ni sakura-wo nageru”, I’m saying, “The ball throws Sakura at me”. It doesn’t make any sense, but we might want to say it in a fantasy novel or something. We can say whatever we like in Japanese so long as we have the logic of the particles correct.

flowchart LR
    b>なげる
    nageru
    throw]
    a{{ぼーるが
    booru-ga
    ball /doer/}}
    o{{さくらを
    sakura-wo
    Sakura}}
    n{{わたしに
    watashi-ni
    to/at me}}
    a e0@<-->|Core| b
    subgraph "White car → engine info"
    direction LR
    a --> n --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o,n whiteText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

◇ Particle は (wa)

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wa can never mark part of core sentence (main car or engine)
wa can never mark any other part of the logical sentence (white car)
non-logical particle
it’s a flag
WA=TOPIC + COMMENT STRUCTURE
は marks the “thing we’re talking about”—it pulls an element out of the sentence as the topic or context.
は overrides が and を, but not other particles.
X は Y が Z is a very common structure, meaning “As for X, Y is Z.”

flowchart LR
    b>アメリカ人だ
    Amerikajin da 
    am American]
    a{{⌀ が
    ⌀ ga
    I}}
    A@{ shape: flag, label: "わたしは
    watashi wa
    as for me" }
    subgraph "Topic Comment structure"
    direction LR
    subgraph X1["wa-flagged"]
    direction LR
    A
    end
    subgraph X2["full logical sentence comment"]
    direction LR
    a --> b
    end
    a---X1---b
    end
    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class A whiteText
    classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
    class a grayText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

Now let’s introduce WA into this sentence.

flowchart LR
    b>なげる
    nageru
    throw]
    a{{⌀が
    ⌀-ga
    I}}
    o{{ぼーるを
    booru-wo
    ball}}
    n{{さくらに
    sakura-ni
    to/at Sakura}}
    A@{ shape: flag, label: "わたしは
    watashi wa
    as for me" }
    a e0@<-->|Core| b
    A e1@==> X
    subgraph X["White car → engine info"]
    direction LR
    a --> n --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o,n whiteText
    e1@{ curve: linear }
    classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
    class a grayText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

Now let’s give the WA to the ball: “Booru-wa watashi-ga sakura-ni nageru.” What we are saying now is “As for the ball, I throw it at Sakura”.

flowchart LR
    b>なげる
    nageru
    throw]
    a{{わたしが
    watashi-ga
    I}}
    o{{⌀を
    ⌀-wo
    it}}
    n{{さくらに
    sakura-ni
    to/at Sakura}}
    A@{ shape: flag, label: "ぼーるは
    booru wa
    as for the ball" }
    a e0@<-->|Core| b
    A e1@==> X
    subgraph X["White car → engine info"]
    direction LR
    a --> n --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class n whiteText
    e1@{ curve: linear }
    classDef grayText fill:none,color:#888888,stroke:#888888,font-family:Arial;
    class o grayText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

The important thing to notice here is that when we change a logical particle from one noun to another, we change what’s actually happening in the sentence. But when we change the non-logical particle WA (は) from one noun to another — I can change it from me to the ball — it makes no difference to the logic of the sentence. It only changes the emphasis: I’m now talking about the ball — “as for the ball…”. What happens to the ball is that I throw it at Sakura. But who is doing what, and what they are doing it with, and what they are doing it to — none of that changes when you change the WA particle. And that’s the key difference between a logical and a non-logical particle.

★ Japanese Verb Tenses – Past, Present, and Future

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So far, we’ve only been using the plain dictionary form of verbs:
taberu (食べる) → to eat
aruku (歩く) → to walk

To speak natural Japanese, we need to understand three main tenses.

◇ Non-Past Tense

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What is the Non-Past Tense?
The plain dictionary form is not strictly “present tense”; it’s called the non-past tense. It’s very similar to English plain form usage.

Japanese non-past defaults to future:
Inu-ga taberu → The dog will eat
Sakura-ga aruku → Sakura will walk

English comparison:
❌ “I eat cake” (if you mean currently eating)
✅ “I eat cake sometimes” (habitual action)
✅ “Next week I fly to Tokyo” (future event)
✅ Literary description: “The sun sinks over the sea, and a small happy robot runs across the beach”

Most of the time, Japanese non-past tense refers to future events.

◇ Continuous Present

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English Construction
Uses be + V-ing:
Sakura is walking

Japanese Construction
iru means “be” in relation to animals and people, and to make this continuous present tense, we always use iru.
Uses the te-form + iru:

The White Engine Concept

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In Inu-ga tabete iru:
Core (engine): inu-ga iru → The dog exists
White engine: tabete → Describes the action the dog is performing

flowchart LR
    b>いる
    iru
    is]
    a{{いぬが
    inu-ga
    dog}}
    o>たべて
    tabete
    eating]
    a e0@<-->|Core| b
    subgraph "white verb-engine acting as modifier"
    direction LR
    a --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o whiteText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

How to Form the Te-Form

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Learning the te-form also helps with forming the past tense (ta-form).

◇ Past Tense

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Formation is simple: add ta (similar rules to te-form).

Example Sentences：
Inu-ga taberu → The dog will eat / non-past
Inu-ga tabeta → The dog ate / past

The rules for adding ta are exactly the same as those for the te-form. Mastering the te-form allows you to form both continuous present and past.

◇ Time Expressions

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Relative Time

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Refers to time relative to the present.

Example: ashita keeki-wo taberu → Tomorrow I will eat cake.

• Relative-time nouns do not require particle when prefacing a sentence.

flowchart LR
    r{{あした
    ashita
    tomorrow}}
    b>たべる
    taberu
    will-eat]
    a{{⌀が
    ⌀-ga
    I}}
    o>けーきを
    keeki-wo
    cake]
    a e0@<-->|Core| b
    subgraph "Relative(to now) time car"
    direction LR
    r --> a --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o whiteText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

And with all relative time expressions like that: yesterday, last week, next year, and so forth, times that are relative to the present time, we just do what we did then. We put the time expression at the beginning of the sentence and that puts the whole sentence in that time.

Absolute Time

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However, when we have an “absolute time expression”, an expression that is not relative to the present, such as Tuesday or six o’clock, then we have to use ni.

Example: Kayoubi-ni keeki-wo taberu → On Tuesday I will eat cake.

• Absolute-time nouns: ni marks time when action takes place.

flowchart LR
    r{{かようびに
    kayoubi-ni
    on-Tuesday}}
    b>たべる
    taberu
    will-eat]
    a{{⌀が
    ⌀-ga
    I}}
    o>けーきを
    keeki-wo
    cake]
    a e0@<-->|Core| b
    subgraph "Absolute time car"
    direction LR
    r --> a --> o --> b
    end

    classDef whiteText fill:none
    class o whiteText
    classDef animate stroke-dasharray: 9,5,stroke-dashoffset: 900,animation: dash 25s linear infinite;
    class e0 animate

Similar to English: “on,” “in,” or “at” → in Japanese, always use ni. If no small word is needed in English, no ni is added.

◇ Summary Table

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• Te-form + iru → continuous present
• Ta-form → past
• Time expressions: relative → at the beginning; absolute → add ni

◇ Worksheets

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Lesson 1

Practice basic sentences without using the zero pronoun.

Lesson 2

Practice using the zero pronoun and particles. Each sentence shows three forms: as spoken, with zero pronoun, and with explicit subject.

Lesson 3

Practice using は (wa) as topic marker. Each sentence shows four forms: basic, zero pronoun, explicit subject, and literal English meaning.

Lesson I: Translate into English

Please put these into English. Natural English is fine. We don’t need “as for” for は. It is important for understanding how it works, but because we don’t use “as for” in English nearly as often as we use は in Japanese we won’t use it here.

Lesson II: Translate into Japanese

Please put these into Japanese. Using word-spacing in your answer is fine. Answering in all-hiragana is also fine.
Words in (brackets) should be zero pronouns – but you don’t need to show them, just write in normal Japanese. Words in [square brackets] should be marked with は – again no need to show any zero pronouns this time.

★ Japanese Verb groups and the Te-form

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◇ Overview

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Japanese verbs are divided into three groups, which only matter when we change their form — such as creating the て-form (te-form) or た-form (ta-form) used in tenses and compound expressions.

Because verb conjugation happens frequently, understanding these three groups is essential.

◇ Group 1: Ichidan Verbs (一段動詞)

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Also known as “one-level verbs” or less accurately as “ru-verbs”.

Structure

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• Always end with -iru or -eru.

• Formed from kana in the i-row or e-row + る (ru).

  みる (miru) → to see
  たべる (taberu) → to eat
  

Conjugation Rule

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When changing form: → Remove -る, then add what you need.

Example (て-form / た-form):

✅ Always regular and predictable.

◇ Group 2: Godan Verbs (五段動詞)

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“Five-level verbs” — the largest group in Japanese.

Structure

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• Can end in any u-sound, e.g. -u, -ku, -su, -tsu, -ru, -nu, -bu, -mu, -gu.

• Can even end in -iru or -eru, which creates some ambiguity.

  • Most -iru / -eru verbs are ichidan,
  • But a substantial minority are godan (e.g. かえる “to return”).

Concept

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They are called five-level verbs because their stems shift through five vowel “levels” (a, i, u, e, o) during conjugation.

◇ Group 3: Irregular Verbs (不規則動詞)

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Only two true irregular verbs in Japanese:

📘 A few others have small irregularities, but these two are the only major exceptions.

◇ Summary of Verb Groups

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◇ Te-form Conjugation Patterns (for Godan Verbs)

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The five groups of Godan verbs are based on their final sound.

① UTSURU Group

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Verbs ending in -u, -tsu, or -ru

Mnemonic: “UTSURU” means to move — we move the ending form.

🧠 Pattern: → Replace final u / tsu / ru with small っ + て / た

② NEW BOOM Group

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Verbs ending in -nu, -bu, -mu

Mnemonic: Think of a “New Boom” — dull, heavy sounds.

🧠 Pattern: → Replace nu/bu/mu with んで / んだ

③ KU / GU Group

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Verbs ending in -ku or -gu

🧠 Pattern:

• For -ku → いて / いた
• For -gu → いで / いだ (ten-ten carries over to the て-ending)

④ SU Group

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Verbs ending in -su

🧠 Pattern: → Replace su with して / した

🧭 Summary Table of Godan Te-Form Rules

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◇ Irregular & Exceptional Verbs

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🧠 Only one real exception: 行く → 行って Everything else follows the normal pattern.

◇ Key Takeaways

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• Ichidan verbs: Always easy — remove -る, add て/た.
• Godan verbs: Learn by final kana pattern, 5 predictable rules.
• Irregular verbs: Only 2 (する・くる).
• Exception: 行く → 行って.

Once these are memorized, all Japanese verbs can be conjugated into te/ta forms logically and consistently.

★ Japanese “Adjectives”

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◇ Overview

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Japanese adjectives are not the same as English adjectives.
Japanese sentences are powered by three types of engines, each forming a distinct sentence type:

All three types can be used like adjectives — that is, to describe or modify nouns.

◇ The I-Train (True Adjectives)

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Example

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ペンが赤い。
Pen-ga akai.
→ “The pen is red.”

Here, akai (赤い) means “is red”, not just “red”.

We can “turn the engine white” — meaning we use it not as the main predicate, but as a modifier:

赤いペンが (akai pen-ga) → “the red pen (is…)”

• Once the engine becomes “white”, it cannot pull the sentence anymore.
• It only adds description to the noun.

Example:

赤いペンが小さい。
Akai pen-ga chiisai.
→ “The red pen is small.”

◇ The U-Train (Verbal Adjectives)

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Any verb (U-engine) can act like an adjective when you turn it “white”.

Example 1

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少女が歌った。(Shoujo-ga utatta) → “The girl sang.”

Turn the verb into an adjectival phrase:

歌った少女 (utatta shoujo) → “the girl who sang.”

This is no longer a sentence — it’s now a descriptive phrase that can sit inside a larger sentence:

歌った少女が寝ている。
The girl who sang is sleeping.

Example 2

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犬が辞書を食べた。(Inu-ga jisho-wo tabeta) → “The dog ate the dictionary.”

辞書を食べた犬 (jisho-wo tabeta inu) → “the dog who ate the dictionary.”

犬が食べた辞書 (inu-ga tabeta jisho) → “the dictionary that was eaten by the dog.”

Combine into a full sentence:

辞書を食べた犬がやんちゃだ。
The dog who ate the dictionary is naughty.

This shows that entire verb sentences can function as adjectives — a crucial pattern in Japanese.

◇ The DA-Train (Nominal Adjectives / “Na-adjectives”)

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Now we come to nouns used adjectivally — what textbooks call na-adjectives.

Example

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犬がやんちゃだ。(Inu-ga yancha-da) → “The dog is naughty.”

When we turn the DA-engine “white”, だ changes to な:

やんちゃな犬 (yancha-na inu) → “the naughty dog.”

Thus:

やんちゃな犬が寝ている。
The bad dog is sleeping.

These na-adjectives are nouns that can act like adjectives when linked with な.
However, not all nouns can be used this way — only certain ones that are commonly used adjectivally.

◇ The の (no) Car

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To describe nouns that can’t take な or い, Japanese uses the の particle — which works like ’s in English.

But の can also indicate class or belonging — not just possession.

カワジャパのキュアドリーです。
“I’m KawaJapa’s Cure Dolly.”
(Belonging to the KawaJapa group.)

Using の for colors or classes

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Some colors are nouns, not い-adjectives:

• 赤 → 赤い (akai) ✅
• ピンク色 (pinku-iro) ❌ no i-form

So we say:

ピンク色のドレス (pinku-iro-no doresu) → “pink dress”
(literally “dress belonging to the class of pink things”)

Other examples:

• うさぎのオスカル → “Oscar the Rabbit” (Oscar who belongs to the rabbit class)
• ゼルダの伝説 → “The Legend of Zelda”
• 伝説の戦士 → “legendary warrior”

◇ Summary: Four Ways to Make Adjectival Phrases

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◇ Practical Advice

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You may wonder:

“Do I have to memorize which nouns take な and which take の?”

Answer: No need — unless you’re preparing for an exam.

• In real conversation, both are easily understood even if you mix them up.
• Over time, you’ll naturally acquire the correct usage through exposure.
• The goal is understanding and communication, not rote memorization.

Japanese is not a game of memorizing abstract rules —
it’s a living language that rewards structural understanding and natural use.

◇ Closing

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「これからもよろしくお願いします。」
Thank you to all patrons who made these lessons possible — let’s continue unlocking Japanese together.

Class dismissed.

◇ Particle も (mo)

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• “Also / Too” Marker
• も indicates sameness or similarity to the previous statement.
• Like は, it overrides が and を.
• Example: 私 が 行く。あなた も 行く。 – I will go. You will go too.
• Example: ケーキ を 食べる。クッキー も 食べる。 – I eat cake. I also eat cookies.

◇ Particle の (no) — Possession & Nominalization

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1. Particle の (no)

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• Possession and Descriptive Marker
• Most commonly used to indicate possession: X の Y = Y of X.
• Example: 私 の 猫 – My cat.

2. Nominalization with の

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• Turns a verb or adjective phrase into a noun-like “thing.”
• Example: 赤い の が 好き – I like the red one.

3. Replacing が with の in embedded clauses

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• Makes the tone softer or more explanatory.
• 私 が 行く → 私 の 行く... – the place “I go to”…

◇ Location, Direction, and Tool Particles

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2. Particle へ (e)

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• Directional Marker
• Similar to に, but emphasizes direction more than arrival.
• 東京 へ 行く – Heading toward Tokyo.

3. Particle で (de)

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• Action Location: Where an action takes place.
  • レストラン で 食べる – Eat at a restaurant.
• Means / Tool / Material
  • バス で 行く – Go by bus.
  • 木 で 作る – Made with wood.

4. Particles から (kara) & まで (made)

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• から: from (starting point)
• まで: to/until (end point)
• 家 から 学校 まで – From home to school

★ Part 2: Verbs, Adjectives, and Tenses

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This section dives into the classification and conjugation of verbs and adjectives, and how to express tenses and negation.

◇ Verb Groups and the て-Form

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1. Verb Groups

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• Ru-verbs (Group 2): End in る, preceded by an i or e sound. e.g., 食べる, 見る.
• U-verbs (Group 1): All other verbs. e.g., 歩く, 話す, 待つ.
• Irregular Verbs: する, 来る.

2. て-form (te-form)

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• Essential for combining actions, requests, permissions, and more.
• Ru-verbs: drop る + て: 食べる → 食べて
• U-verbs: various sound shifts
  • く/ぐ → いて/いで: 歩く → 歩いて
  • う/つ/る → って: 待つ → 待って
  • ぬ/ぶ/む → んで: 飲む → 飲んで
  • す → して: 話す → 話して
• Irregular: する → して, 来る → 来て

3. Uses of て-form

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• Link actions: 起きて、ご飯を食べて、学校へ行く
• Requests: 待ってください – Please wait.
• Ongoing actions: 食べている – Is eating.
• Manner / Means: 歩いて行く – Go on foot.

◇ Adjective Types and Conjugation

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1. I-adjectives

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• Negative: 赤い → 赤くない
• Past: 赤い → 赤かった
• Past Negative: 赤い → 赤くなかった
• Te-form: 安くて、おいしい

2. Na-adjectives

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• As noun modifier: [na-adj] な [noun]: きれいな 花
• As predicate: [na-adj] だ: 花 が きれい だ
• Negative: きれいじゃない
• Past: きれいだった
• Te-form: きれいで、静かだ

◇ Verb Tense and Negation

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1. Masu-form (Polite)

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• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べます
• U-verbs: 歩く → 歩きます

2. Plain vs Polite Forms

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• The course focuses on plain form first, as it’s essential for grammar foundations.

3. Nai-form (Negative)

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• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べない
• U-verbs: 歩く → 歩かない
• Irregular: する → しない, 来る → 来ない

4. Ta-form (Past)

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• Same pattern as te-form, but with た/だ instead of て/で
• 食べて → 食べた, 歩いた → 歩いた

★ Part 3: Complex Sentences and Advanced Particle Usage (Lessons 46–70)

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◇ Compound and Embedded Sentences

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1. Compound Sentences with て-form

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• Links sequential actions: 起きて、顔を洗って、朝ごはんを食べた。
• Can express cause or manner depending on intonation/context.

2. Quoting with と

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• と 言う: “say that…”
  • 先生 が 来る と 言った – (Someone) said that the teacher is coming.
• と 思う: “think that…”
  • 明日 は 雨 だ と 思う – I think it will rain tomorrow.
• と 聞いた: “heard that…”
  • 彼 が 来ない と 聞いた – I heard he won’t come.

3. Using こと and の for Nominalization

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• ～こと: Turns a verb phrase into a noun (more abstract/formal).
  • 泳ぐ こと が 好き – I like swimming.
• ～の: More casual or descriptive nominalization.
  • 彼 が 来る の は 明日 – It’s tomorrow that he’s coming.

◇ Giving and Receiving Verbs

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1. あげる / くれる / もらう

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• あげる: to give (speaker gives to others or others give to others)
• くれる: to give (someone gives to speaker or in-group)
• もらう: to receive

  Action	Verb	Example
  I give to you	あげる	私は あなた に 本 を あげる
  You give to me	くれる	あなた は 私 に 本 を くれる
  I receive	もらう	私は あなた に 本 を もらう

2. ～て あげる / て くれる / てもらう

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• Giving/receiving actions, not objects.
  • 手伝って あげる – I help (you).
  • 説明して くれる – (They) explain (to me).
  • 説明して もらった – I was explained to.

◇ Desire, Intention, and Suggestions

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1. たい-form (want to do)

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• 食べたい, 行きたい – want to eat/go
• Uses を instead of が
  • ケーキ が 食べたい → ケーキ を 食べたい

2. ～たがる (3rd person wants)

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• 彼 は 行きたがっている – He seems to want to go.

3. Volitional Form (let’s / I shall)

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• U-verbs: 行く → 行こう
• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べよう
• Irregular: する → しよう, 来る → 来よう
• Example: 映画 を 見よう – Let’s watch a movie.

4. ～つもり (intend to do)

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• 勉強する つもり です – I intend to study.

◇ Comparisons and Superlatives

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1. より / ほど

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• X は Y より 高い – X is taller than Y.
• X は Y ほど 高くない – X is not as tall as Y.

2. のほうが / より

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• Emphasizes preference or direction.
  • 犬 の ほうが 好き – I prefer dogs.

3. 一番 (いちばん)

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• Superlative: 一番 高い 山 – the tallest mountain.

◇ Conditional Forms and Hypotheticals

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1. ～たら (if / when)

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• Verb past + ら: 行ったら, 雨 だったら
• Used for real conditions and outcomes.

2. ～ば form

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• Conditional using base verb + ば
  • 食べれば, 行けば, 高ければ
• More formal/logical sounding than たら.

2. なら

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• Assumptive conditional (based on topic or supposition)
  • 行く なら 早く して – If you’re going, hurry.

3. と

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• Natural consequence (like a rule or law)
  • 春 に なる と 暖かく なる – When it becomes spring, it becomes warm.

★ Part 4: Advanced Grammar and Expressions (Lessons 71–93)

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◇ Passive and Causative Forms

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1. Passive Form (someone is acted upon)

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• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べられる
• U-verbs: 書く → 書かれる
• 私は 先生 に 褒められた – I was praised by the teacher.

2. Causative Form (make/let someone do)

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• Ru-verbs: 食べる → 食べさせる
• U-verbs: 行く → 行かせる
• 母 は 子供 を 勉強させた – The mother made the child study.

3. Causative-Passive (be made to do)

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• 食べさせられる, 行かされる – I was made to eat/go

◇ Honorific and Humble Expressions

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1. Honorific Verbs (respectful)

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• いらっしゃる, なさる, 召し上がる, ご覧になる

2. Humble Verbs (lower self)

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• 参る, いたす, いただく, 申す

3. Use with keigo forms

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• 先生 は お帰り に なりました
• 私 が いたします

◇ Formal Written Language Patterns

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1. ～のだ / ～んだ

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• Adds explanatory nuance:
  • どうして 行かない の？ – Why aren’t you going?

2. ～ようだ / ～みたいだ

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• Resemblance or appearance:
  • 雨 の ようだ – Seems like rain.

3. ～そうだ

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• Looks like:
  • 美味しそう
• Hearsay:
  • 雨 が 降る そうだ – I heard it will rain

◇ Idiomatic Phrases and Natural Expressions

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1. ～てしまう

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• Completion or regret:
  • 食べてしまった – I (accidentally) ate it all.

2. ～ながら

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• While doing:
  • 音楽 を 聞きながら 勉強する

3. ～ことがある / ～ことがある

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• There are times when:
  • 遅れる こと が ある

4. ～ようにする / ～ようになる

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• Try to do / become able to do:
  • 忘れない ようにする – Try not to forget

5. ～ばかり

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• Only / just:
  • 食べて ばかり いる